Second Edition
Edited by
Everett L. Worthington, Jr. &
Nathaniel G. Wade (Eds.)
Reviewed by
Geoffrey W. Sutton, Ph.D.
Let me state at the outset, I recommend the Handbook of Forgiveness, Second Edition to anyone interested in forgiveness studies. And, it belongs on the shelves of university and seminary libraries around the world.
*****
I began following forgiveness studies in 2001. I had returned to
academia after a full-time career as a psychologist. I naively thought all
professors ought to conduct and publish research. As I was searching for
research ideas, I came across a few forgiveness studies. I recognized the name,
Ev Worthington—we had become friends as new graduate students at the University
of Missouri. After contacting him, I received a massive packet of forgiveness
articles. Now my task was to find something that had not been done. Meanwhile,
I met Nathaniel Wade—not in person, mind you, but by his connection to
forgiveness publications. So, for nearly two decades I have followed
forgiveness research and contributed a bit on the fringe.
*****
Worthington and Wade treat us to a massive summary of forgiveness
research in 32 chapters, which are organized into eight Parts. This volume (I’ll
call it HF2) picks up following the first edition by Worthington in 2005.
I got the paperback version to review for an academic publication.
In this blog-post, I’ll provide a general summary along with some thoughts about
some of the ideas. If my academic review is published, I’ll add that reference
below.
*****
Part 1 The Nature of Forgiveness
Scholars argue about the conceptual definition of forgiveness. The
differences are covered in this section. By now there is a consensus that
forgiveness is an internal process that changes a complex of motivations toward
the people who hurt them.
Let me interject my
view of the general model contained in the psychology literature. An offender
acts in a way that is perceived by a second person, usually called the
victim, as offensive. When the offensive act is not easily brushed aside
victims may enter a state called unforgiveness. This state may include
feelings of anger and sadness, thoughts of revenge, actions to avoid the
offender, acts of retaliation, and efforts to seek justice.
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Scholars propose that forgiveness is a process of replacing the complex
of negative thoughts, feelings, and motivations (e.g., to avoid the offender or
seek revenge toward the offender) with either a neutral or a benevolent complex
of thoughts, feelings, and motivations.
There are a few theories about how forgiveness works. The most
common theory is stress and coping theory. In this case, the offensive
act is a stressful event producing common stress related effects in the
offended person. In addition to those mentioned above (thoughts, feelings,
behavior) there is a physiological impact and a social relationship impact.
Forgiveness acts to reduce the effects of stress and return the offended person
to a state of balance. To all of this I would add an impact on identity, which
is a construction of the self, which for many can include spirituality.
An alternative theory of forgiveness is interdependence theory, which
fits well with interpersonal offenses. Forgiveness is a process that paves the
way for relationship repair. Repaired relationships follow a path of
reconciliation, which is not a focus of HF2.
As is common in psychological science, human behavior is considered
from the perspective of human evolution. We learn how this evolution might make
sense in helping people cope with stress as well as the cost-benefit issue of
forgiving an offender. In the latter case, a balance needs to be struck between
cues that encourage offenders to continue harmful acts versus cues that offer
relationship repair based on trust and the expectation the victim still wishes
to have a relationship.
Worthington and his colleagues have recently been studying two
dimensions of interpersonal forgiveness known as decisional and emotional
forgiveness. In some cultures, forgiveness is expected, and people may
make a decision to forgive soon after they have been hurt. However, emotional
forgiveness takes time. Feelings of anger can resurface fairly quickly. Effectively
dealing with emotional forgiveness may involve psychotherapy for those who find
themselves worsening their inner distress by holding onto anger toward a person
who hurt them years ago.
Part 1 closes with a chapter on ways to measure forgiveness. The
major measures are the Transgression-Related Interpersonal Motivations
Inventory (TRIM), which addresses three motivational components of revenge,
avoidance, and benevolence. The second measure is the Enright Forgiveness
Inventory (EFI), which examines changes in cognition, affect, and
behavior. The chapter also includes
information on measures of trait forgiveness and the fast-growing field of self-forgiveness.
Part 2 The Psychology of Forgiveness
Some studies have addressed forgiveness in children and youth but
more needs to be done. Many studies have examined religious and spiritual (RS)
factors related to forgiveness. Forgiveness is consistent with the teachings of
many religions and is a command for Christians. In this section, and elsewhere
in the book, there are references to Christianity and Islam. There is also a
reference to Hinduism, but you will not find Buddhism or Judaism in the index.
Part 3 Close Relationships
and Forgiveness
Three chapters update research on forgiveness in families, married
couples, and work relationships. Of particular note is the discussion of
factors like power, commitment, apology, and amends. A second highlight is the third
chapter covering forgiveness in response to acts of infidelity, intimate
partner violence, and divorce.
Part 4 Forgiveness,
Physiology, Health, and Well-being
There’s one chapter each
providing reviews or work on forgiveness related to physiology, health, and well-being.
Forgiveness studies include a range of technologically supported indices of
physiological changes linked to forgiveness and unforgiveness. In the future,
we may be able to link biological differences to differences in transgressions
and forgiveness. Forgiveness is linked to health and mental health in a number
of studies thus, the relationships appear reliable. At this point, research is
needed to identify how forgiveness might influence general health and
well-being. If we can assume that forgiveness relieves or attenuates negative
stress effects, it seems reasonable to hope for improvements in overall
well-being.
Part 5 Forgiveness in Non-Western Cultures
Five chapters take us from an overview to studies that look at
forgiveness in large regions of the globe outside of North America and Europe. We
are reminded that forgiveness may look different in cultures that may be
described as collectivist compared to those identified as individualistic. This
contrast comes up more than once in HF2. Another relevant construct is enemyship,
which is an ongoing relationship with features of hatred and malice that might
be linked to efforts to interfere with the other person’s progress or
well-being. Some writers referred to specific incidents of severe conflict
within a region. Forgiveness studies outside of North America and Europe expected to grow considerably in the years ahead.
are
Part 6 Psychological Interventions to Promote Forgiveness
The bottom line is forgiveness works. The two leading models are the
Process model developed by Enright and the REACH model developed by
Worthington. The reviews document situations in which these models have been
applied. A future need is for increased research on forgiveness in the context
of psychotherapy for people with severe mental illness. Self-forgiveness is
also reviewed and there is evidence supporting the value of a workbook approach
as well as group interventions to reducing the distress experienced by those
who have hurt themselves.
Part 7 Societal Issues Involving Forgiveness
A major contribution in this part is new research on intergroup
forgiveness. A new scale, Group Forgiveness Scale, shows some promise as
well. Another unique context is forgiveness in organizations. The idea of a forgiveness
climate is put forward. And variables like power and the concept of power dynamics
are important contributions. Another important area is the role of amends in
promoting forgiveness. A final chapter in this section deals with peace and reconciliation.
I particularly liked this focus because I think something is missing if we
forget the potential value of forgiveness to contribute to reconciliation and
interpersonal relationships within a society.
Part 8 Drawing the Threads Together
There are two chapters in this final section of HF2. First, an
intriguing graphic shows the interrelationships of key forgiveness concepts in
research. This provides a look at research at-a-glance. The authors
cover five categories, but I was thinking of what is missing. Following are
the five categories of studies related to forgiveness.
1 Conceptualization and Measurement
2 Individual and Personality Differences
3 Health and Well-being
4 Dyads, Organizations, and Societies
5 Clinical Intervention
In the graphic, you will find negative emotions like guilt and shame,
but you do not find links to positive emotions we might expect when forgiveness
works such as happiness and love or at least relief. And there’s no sense of
intrapersonal or interpersonal peace.
The final chapter provides an extensive overview with several ideas
for future studies.
*****
My Thoughts on the Handbook of Forgiveness, Second Edition
My Thoughts on the Handbook of Forgiveness, Second Edition
In the Introduction, the editors invite us as
readers to consider what might have been missed from the manual. I am inclined
to think along these lines anyway, so it was nice to see the editors take a
humble stance. In keeping with this attitude, I offer a few thoughts.
1. I am interested in the Psychology of Religion
and Spirituality so I would like to see more on RS factors and forgiveness and
reconciliation. We often see news stories about clergy abuse. There’s been a
lot of news about Catholic priests who abused children, but their priests are
not the only offending clergy. Protestant clergy have abused congregants and
laypeople have abused people as well. Church doesn’t seem safe anymore. So much
work needs to be done on the role of forgiveness in helping abused people move
from victim to survivor. And we need to understand about healing communities ripped
apart when a leader does so much damage.
2. I was surprised by the lack of studies
referring to forgiveness and sexual minorities. Terms like gay, lesbian, or LGBT are not in the
index. It’s no secret that sexual minorities have been hurt by many policies as
well as hateful language and physical violence. I actually searched PsycInfo
and Academic Search Elite and did not find a lot or empirical studies between
2005 and 2020. So, here’s an area in need of more research and likely a chapter
in the next handbook.
3. I affirm the importance of paying attention to
cultural diversity. I am not sure the particular continent-regional division used
in HF2 works. One suggestion I have is looking at cultures of violence because the
concept of forgiveness is bound up with the concept of harm. What greater challenge
is there to forgive those who have murdered or raped a loved one? The UN has
some data on homicide rates, which is a place to start in thinking about a
range of high to low violent cultures. Presumably, there is less need to
forgive people for serious offenses in cultures where relatively few people are
killed, injured, or sexually assaulted. I can only offer hypotheses unless a
reader knows some relevant research and posts a response.
4. Worthington mentioned the need for
neuroscience studies in his last chapter. I certainly agree. But I am thinking
about forgiveness and neuropsychology. Like many clinicians, cognitive assessment was part of a
typical workweek. People with different intellectual abilities and memory capacities
process the world and relationships differently. Although psychologists are
aware of the need to get out of the college classroom when conducting research,
there isn’t much focus on intellectual or cognitive diversity and relationship
variables like forgiveness.
5. I have wondered about the contribution of Terror Management Theory (TMT) to forgiveness studies. Two studies by Daryl R. Van Tongeren and his team (2013) found that mortality salience (MS) linked to less forgiveness in less committed relationships. Hypothetically, forgiveness may be seen as an anxiety buffer especially for Christians who feel the need to forgive in order to receive God's forgiveness (Matthew 6:15). It would seem MS would elicit increased forgiveness for those who feel close to God. Making things right before death seems like a truism and forgiveness might be a part of that "to do list."TMT is not listed in the index to the handbook and thus may be a fruitful area of new research.
References
5. I have wondered about the contribution of Terror Management Theory (TMT) to forgiveness studies. Two studies by Daryl R. Van Tongeren and his team (2013) found that mortality salience (MS) linked to less forgiveness in less committed relationships. Hypothetically, forgiveness may be seen as an anxiety buffer especially for Christians who feel the need to forgive in order to receive God's forgiveness (Matthew 6:15). It would seem MS would elicit increased forgiveness for those who feel close to God. Making things right before death seems like a truism and forgiveness might be a part of that "to do list."TMT is not listed in the index to the handbook and thus may be a fruitful area of new research.
References
Worthington,
E. L., Jr. & Wade, N. G. (eds.). (2019). Handbook of forgiveness: second edition. New York: Routledge. Available on AMAZON.
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